Design instructional programs based on learning principles and theories.
“Tell me and I forget. Teach me and I remember. Involve me and I learn.”
-Benjamin Franklin
EXPLICATION
The Oxford English Dictionary (2016) defines teaching as “showing the way; direction; guidance.” This certainly describes the role of librarians in their quest to connect patrons with materials and information. Librarians are teaching when they show a patron how to locate a book using the online catalog and when they are conducting reference transactions. Teaching moments can be as simple as talking through the search strategy and process with patrons as the search is being performed during a reference transaction, or as complex as conducting learning sessions or classes that instruct users in more complex concepts of information discovery. Teaching may involve face-to-face contact with one or many patrons or it may involve designing virtual training sessions or tutorials to be used by patrons at the point of need. No matter what form teaching takes, it is important for librarians to be familiar with learning principles and theories that will inform the way they provide instruction to patrons. Understanding the principles of the most prevalent learning theories is important because “learning theories examine why and how knowledge is formed . . . [and] provide the background for instructional techniques” (Booth, 2014, p. 36).
Behaviorist Instruction
Behaviorist instruction considers learners to be vessels that can be filled with knowledge. In many ways, this echoes Freire’s “banking concept” in which “teacher’s make daily deposits of knowledge in students’ heads” (Elmborg, 2006, p. 193). Essentially, this type of instruction involves passive learning in the form of teachers providing information and students absorbing it through repetition. In the manner of Pavlov and his dogs, “learning is demonstrated when a correct response (answer) is given to a particular stimulus (question)” (Booth, 2014, p. 38). In a word, it is rote learning. That is not to say that behaviorist instruction has no place in a librarian’s toolbox. For simple tasks, such as showing patrons how to use library equipment (copiers, printers, microform readers, etc.) or locate a particular book on the shelves, behaviorist instruction is likely to be sufficient, particularly if either librarian or patron is under a time constraint. However, because behaviorist instruction fails to consider “the process by which knowledge is formed or the factors affecting its interpretation,” it is not the best theory for informing more complex instruction sessions (Booth, 2014, p. 39), particularly those that must take place in academic libraries as a means of helping students to succeed in academia.
Cognitivist Instruction
Cognitivist instruction is based on Jean Piaget’s cognitive development theory. Rather than learning simply involving stimulus and response, cognitivist theory involves an understanding of how learning takes place, i.e., of how people assimilate new information with what they already know. Piaget asserts, “an individual is constantly building and revising ‘mental models’ (schemata) to categorize information and make sense of experiences” (Booth, 2014, p. 39). Cognitive architecture—the connections among pieces of knowledge—is key. The more connections a person can make to a piece of knowledge, the more meaningful it is to them, and thus it becomes easier to remember. Effective instruction based on this learning theory employs what David Ausubel terms an “anchoring idea, [which] links new content to familiar concepts or experiences” (Booth, 2014, p. 39). Learning is best accomplished when new information is presented in “chunks,” allowing learners to take in and assimilate new concepts in manageable amounts. Effective instruction also involves ascertaining what prior knowledge students have in order to build on what is already known and encouraging metacognitive strategies such as self-monitoring and self-correcting. An example of cognitivist instruction in a library setting might involve a librarian showing a patron who is familiar with using the database Academic Search Premier how to use a new or different database by explaining that while database interfaces may look different, the functions and applications are relatively the same. Learning how to use a new or different database would be based on the patron’s prior knowledge about other databases.
Constructivist Instruction
Building on the idea of cognitivist instruction, constructivist instruction posits that learning is socially constructed and is influenced by culture and context. Constructivists such as John Dewey and Lev Vygotsky proposed that “learners create meaning from their environment by interpreting them through personal attributes, values, and perceptions” (Booth, 2014, p. 39). Essentially, knowledge is constructed through experience. Like cognitivist instruction, constructivist instruction should link new information to prior knowledge. Effective instruction is learner-centered and collaborative. Instruction should model Dewey’s experiential education where learners are presented with problems or projects for which active inquiry is required to find an answer or solution. This allows learners and teachers to become collaborators, with teachers modeling behavior and learners observing and performing that behavior. An example of constructivist instruction would be librarians teaching the research process by modeling research skills, terminology, critical thinking, etc.
Constructivist instruction is evident in Freire’s preferred model of pedagogy, which “focuses on knowledge acquisition [through engagement with] significant problems” and “develop critical consciousness, [learning] to take control of their lives and their own learning to become active agents, asking and answering questions that matter to them and to the world around them” (Elmborg, 2006, p. 193). This process of instruction is critical to people—particularly students—learning the research process. To perform successfully both in academia as well as in the real world requires the ability to recognize questions that matter and the skills to locate information to answer the questions. While any library is appropriate for providing constructivist based learning, I believe this type of instruction is crucial in academic settings. I am an advocate of curriculum-based integrated information literacy instruction. In today’s information-saturated world, everyone needs to know how to effectively and efficiently locate and evaluate information to meet a variety of information needs. By integrating information literacy instruction into academic classes, information needs are not only contextualized but learners are able to assimilate knowledge about locating information into what they have already learned. In other words, by the time they earn their degree, locating and evaluating appropriate information is habitual rather than viewed as a daunting necessary evil.
When designing instruction, it is important to remember that people learn in different ways. Learning styles are many and varied and are dependent on such attributes as personality (introvert, extrovert) and learning preferences (visual, aural). One of the more widely used models for ascertaining learning styles is David Kolb’s “Learning Style Inventory.” Kolb’s model is based on “how learner’s prefer to interact with information” (active experimentation and reflective) and “how learner’s prefer to process information” (concrete or abstract) (Grassian and Kaplowitz, 2009, p. 42). Learners are described in terms of four possible learning styles:
- Divergers: concrete and reflective
- Convergers: abstract and active
- Assimilators: abstract and reflective
- Accommodators: concrete and active.
Another well-known and oft-used tool for determining learning style is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, in which learners typed based on the following traits:
- Introverts or extraverts
- Sensors (practical) or intuitors (imaginative)
- Thinkers (logical) or feelers (humanistic)
- Judges (rigid) or perceivers (flexible).
Effective instruction presents information and learning opportunities in a variety of ways to accommodate various learning styles.
Universal Design
Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is based on the understanding that instruction and learning environments should be designed to accommodate all types of learners “despite physical limitations, learning disabilities, behavioral problems, or language barriers” (Chodock and Dollinger, 2009, p. 26). The three principles inherent in UDL are that information should be presented in multiple formats, should allow learners to process and engage information in multiple ways and provide “multiple opportunities to express what they have learned,” and should be presented in a variety of ways (Chodock and Dollinger, 2009, p. 26). Furthermore, lessons should be straightforward and simple in order to hold the learner’s attention. For example, a screencast about how to evaluate various types of information sources should not include instruction on how to compose search queries or conduct searches. In a library setting, UDL may be evident in the number of ways patrons can learn about information literacy concepts, including handouts, screencasts, asynchronous online classes, and face-to-face training. UDL is evident when libraries provide multiple modes of access to information and instruction that considers the needs of those who may not be able to come to the physical library. It is evident in instruction that is provided in languages other than English, reflecting the languages of the patron community. And it is evident when libraries provide information and instruction tailored to a wide range of skills and abilities regarding technology.
COMPETENCY DEVELOPMENT
Perhaps because of my years working as a tutor, I have an interest in teaching. In particular, I am interested in information literacy instruction, teaching others what is involved in locating resources that fulfill information needs. In today’s world, it is critical to understand how to identify sources of information, how to evaluate them, and how to use them. I think the current election cycle is a perfect example of how information saturation causes overload where people revert to gleaning important—and even critical—information from sound bites, headlines on questionable websites, and social media feeds. While many of my MLIS classes have provided information on how to direct or guide people to information—including INFO-210, Reference and Information Services; INFO-220, Legal Research; and INFO-282, Correctional Library Management—two classes in particular dealt with theories surrounding instruction. In both INFO-250, Design and Implementation of Instructional Strategies for Information Professional, and INFO-254, I learned about learning styles, instruction theories, and instruction design models. I think the fact that I took both of these classes during the same semester demonstrates my understanding of the importance of scaffolding.
I have put what I learned in these classes to practical use. As mentioned in other competencies, I work with instructors and students at a local community college to provide research instruction sessions that are one class period in length and are tailored to the curriculum of a particular class. When I began doing this five years ago, the instruction session I offered could be likened to an extra-long one-shot library orientation session. I lectured, used terminology that was too technical for students new to the research process, and performed pre-designed searches that failed to demonstrate the reality of searching: that as often as not, queries may yield no useful results. While some students were able to absorb what I was teaching, many others did not. My instruction session was instructor-centered in that it was based on what I thought students should and could learn during the allotted time. The instruction sessions were not carried out in the library so students did not have access to computers but simply had to watch what I was doing on the overhead screen. Vygotsky’s “Zone of Proximal Development” refers to “‘the amount of learning possible by a given student given the proper instructional conditions’” (Booth, 2014, p. 40). Needless to say, I was not providing the “proper instructional conditions” for the majority of learners in those classes.
Since taking INFO-250 and INFO-254, I have drastically changed my instruction design. My instruction sessions utilize constructivist theory of instruction, are student-centered, and provide activities to engage students in the learning process. While I still lecture and introduce appropriate terminology, I provide handouts for the class to refer to at the point of need. Handouts include a glossary of terminology, diagrams that enhance concepts such as Boolean logic, and screenshots showing how to use certain database functions. I have the students bring their laptops to use during the instruction. I have them actively engage in the learning process by experimenting with search queries and databases, which reflects Freire’s preferred model of pedagogy, focusing on “knowledge acquisition [through engagement with] significant problems” (Elmborg, 2006, p. 193). I explain complex concepts by situating them in contexts the students can relate to and understand. For example, the following is how I demonstrate to the class how research standards can be likened to an everyday practice they engage in:
Determines nature and extent of information needed: Suppose you met a new guy and he asked you out. Would you want to know nothing more about him than that he asked you out and he’s cute? Of course not. You would decide what, based on your values and previous experience, that you would like to know about him in order to determine if he is worthy of your time and you would set about finding out that information.
Access needed information effectively and efficiently: Because your date is on Saturday night and today is Wednesday, you would try to find out what you believe you needed to know about this new guy before the first date. You might call mutual friends to ask questions. You might look him up on Facebook or some other social media site and look at pictures and statuses that he has posted in an attempt to inform yourself about this person.
Evaluates information and its sources critically and incorporates selected information into his or her knowledge base and value system: So you have read his posts and looked at his pictures. What do you think? Do they offer a true picture of who he is? Remember, this data is from Facebook—do you think people give a true impression of themselves on social media websites? Based on his posts, does he seem sincere? Does he come across as self-confident or pompous? Sincere or exaggerating? Do you fairly evaluate what you learn or are you blinded by his looks and the flattery you feel that he seems to like you? And what have mutual friends told you about him? Do they think he is a nice guy? Do they think he is a good match for your values?
Uses information effectively to accomplish a specific purpose: Now you have to process all this information and make a decision based on your knowledge base and value system. After all, this could be just one date, but it could also be the man with whom you decide to spend your life. You had better look at all the information you have gathered with a critical eye.
McMillen and Hill (2004) note that Hutchins, Fister, and MacPherson believe, “the ultimate goal ‘is to create conditions that enable students to perceive themselves as active players in the production of knowledge and to understand how, in fact, knowledge is produced so that they can continue active participation in it beyond their college years’” (p. 11). Situating research skills and concepts in a relatable context helps them realize they already engage in research to inform their stance on all kinds of topics and that researching and reading about issues related to class content is no different in terms of process.
EVIDENCE
1. Proposal for Development of a Unit of Instruction
The first item of evidence is the culminating project from INFO-250. This class focused on how to design information sessions. The creation of this proposal took place over a series of assignments designed to teach us the appropriate process for developing instruction plans. The first assignment required asking a series of questions that assist in focusing the purpose of the instruction session, who it will serve, what will motivate learners. Essential Learning Outcomes (ELO) are defined as a means for measuring actual understanding. Subsequent assignments required developing an outline of key topics to be covered, designing activities to enhance and reinforce learning, and designing instruction materials and tools. The instruction session is designed using constructivist instruction theory. The resulting proposal, “Basic Principles of Research for Academic Success,” not only demonstrates my mastery of designing an effective unit of instruction but also reflects how I now conduct instruction sessions with community college students.
2. Screencast Instruction
In accordance with the principles of Universal Design, information instruction should be available in a variety of formats and addressing a variety of skill levels. One common form of instruction is a video tutorial. The benefits of video tutorials are that they provide instruction at the point of need, can be used repeatedly, and can often be accessed remotely without having to actually visit the library. The next item of evidence is a screencast developed for INFO-254. The intended audience is high school students. The screencast demonstrates how to use the ProQuest Learning: Literature database to locate literary criticism. This assignment taught me a number of valuable lessons, not the least of which was how to keep the lesson focused in order to stay within the five-minute time allotment allowed by free use of the Jing software. The time constraint was actually a benefit in that it forced me to consider the principles of cognitive overload, thus resulting in an instruction session that is clear and concise. The accompanying report on the assignment demonstrates my understanding of the application of Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory as well as Behaviorist and Cognitivist Instruction techniques by providing step-by-step instructions and making lessons relevant to learners.
3. Guide on the Side
While a screencast provides a quick way for instruction to be provided to users, it lacks the ability to provide active learning. The open-source software Guide on the Side (GOTS), developed at the University of Arizona, is another means of providing tutorials. GOTS tutorials allow students to “read the instructions provided by the librarians while actively using a database [or website], without needing to switch between screens” (Farkas, 2012). The next item of evidence is a GOTS designed for INFO-254. For this assignment, a partner and I decided to design a GOTS aimed at guiding high school and first-year college students in locating statistics on the U.S. Census website. GOTS is a fantastic tool for facilitating instruction as it allows users to move forward and backward through lessons and provides instant feedback that allows users to evaluate their learning. This assignment is presented as evidence not only because it further demonstrates my ability to design effective instruction sessions but also because it now provides a lesson in what happens when tutorials are not kept up-to-date. Since this GOTS was developed (in Spring 2015), the section of the U.S. Census Bureau website that our tutorial addresses changed, making our GOTS ineffective. This is an important lesson regarding instruction session: they must be kept up-to-date. NOTE: For this project, my partner and I worked together to decide on a website for our GOTS and how extensive the scope of the tutorial should be. I developed and input the actual tutorial, keeping my partner apprised of the content and progress. My partner composed the report on the project.
4. Synchronous Online Instruction Session
The final item of evidence offered is an instruction session developed and delivered for INFO-254. The premise for the instruction is teaching middle school students how to evaluate websites using the C.R.A.A.P. test. At this age, many teachers are beginning to require students write informative essays that require research. In days gone by, this likely would have been accomplished via a visit to the Encyclopedia Britannica. Today’s student may not even know what an encyclopedia is or where to find one. By middle school, children are, more often than not, familiar with “Googling” to fulfill their information needs. Even though they think they can “find anything on the Internet,” they do not realize the negative side of this statement: That ANYONE can put ANYTHING on the Internet, true or not. This instruction session employs simple and clear instructions for evaluating websites based on currency, relevance, accuracy, authority, and purpose as a means of discerning whether information on that website is reliable. Important terms such as those making up the acronym C.R.A.A.P. as well as the term “bias” are explained in a manner understandable by the target age group. Furthermore, learning is enhanced with activities that allow both the instructor and students to monitor the level of learning taking place. The accompanying report justifies the choices made in developing the instruction session as well as evaluates my performance and the instruction session as a whole. NOTE: To avoid spending two hours watching all presentations, fast-forward to 1:35:36 on the recording.
CONCLUSION
At some point in their careers, most librarians will find it necessary to provide instruction, whether it be simple one-on-one guidance in the use of online catalogs or complex information literacy instruction delivered to a class over a series of instruction sessions. Instruction may be provided face-to-face or online via video tutorials, guided learning tools, or synchronous or asynchronous instruction sessions. Design of effective instruction sessions should provide clear and measurable learning objectives and should employ Universal Design concepts in order to accommodate the widest range of learning styles. The discussion and evidence presented demonstrates my understanding and mastery of learning principles and theories necessary for effective instruction design.
References
Booth, C. (2014). Reflective teaching, effective learning: Instructional literacy for library educators [e-book]. Retrieved from http://www.sjsu.eblib.com.libaccess.sjlibrary .org/patron/FullRecord.aspx?p=675848
Chodock, T., & Dolinger, E. (2009). Applying universal design to information literacy: Teaching students who learn differently at Landmark College. Reference & User Services Quarterly, 49(1), 24-32. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete database.
Elmborg, J. (2006). Critical information literacy: Implications for instructional practice.Journal of Academic Librarianshipo, 32(2), 192-199. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.acalib.2005.12.004
Farkas, M. (2012, May/June). Incorporating active learning into online instruction. American Libraries Magazine. Retrieved from http://www.americanlibrariesmagazine.org/article/guide-side
Grassian, E. S., & Kaplowitz, J. R. (2009). Information literacy instruction: Theory and practice (2nd ed.). New York City, NY: Neal-Schuman.
McMillen, P. S., & Hill, E. (2004). Why teach “research as a conversation” in freshmancomposition courses? A metaphor to help librarians and composition instructors develop a sharedmodel. Research Strategies, 20(1-2), 3-22. http://dx.doi.org.libaccess.sjlibrary. org/10.1016/j.resstr.2005.07.005
Teaching. (2016.). In Oxford English dictionary. Retrieved from Oxford English Dictionary Online database.
Kristin Lehigh 